O-2,6-Dichlorobenzyl-L-tyrosine

Electrochemical oxidation of Li2O2, i.e., the charging reaction of the aprotic lithium-oxygen batteries (Li-O2 batteries), is significantly influenced by its surface chemistry. Here, the surface species of Li2CO3, widely identified together with Li2O2 at the end of discharge, is investigated to understand its implication for the oxidation of Li2O2. In situ doping Li2O2 with various amounts of Li2CO3 has been obtained by reacting with CO2 gas in a controlled way, and the electrochemical oxidation of the doped Li2O2 is studied with a quantitative differential electrochemical mass spectrometer (DEMS). Instead of a single charging potential plateau and one O2 gas evolution stage for the pristine Li2O2, Li2CO3-doped Li2O2 exhibits two O2/CO2 gas evolution stages and three charging plateaus characterized with the larger overpotential for the initial and final stages. The conductivity of Li2CO3 dopant is invoked to explain the different oxidation behaviors of Li2CO3-doped Li2O2. The DEMS study of the electrochemical oxidation of isotope-labeled Li213CO3 is also conducted to identify the origins of O2 and CO2 evolution during the oxidation of Li2CO3-doped Li2O2. The results reported here provide an improved understanding of the Li2O2 oxidation in the presence of parasitic Li2CO3 species and will contribute to the future development of Li-O2 batteries.

Contents Summary 1197 I. Introduction 1198 II. Measurement and imaging of H2 O2 1198 III. H2 O2 and O2·- toxicity 1199 IV. Production of H2 O2 : enzymes and subcellular locations 1200 V. H2 O2 transport 1205 VI. Control of H2 O2 concentration: how and where? 1205 VII. Metabolic functions of H2 O2 1207 VIII. H2 O2 signalling 1207 IX. Where next? 1209 Acknowledgements 1209 References 1209 SUMMARY: Hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) is produced, via superoxide and superoxide dismutase, by electron transport in chloroplasts and mitochondria, plasma membrane NADPH oxidases, peroxisomal oxidases, type III peroxidases and other apoplastic oxidases. Intracellular transport is facilitated by aquaporins and H2 O2 is removed by catalase, peroxiredoxin, glutathione peroxidase-like enzymes and ascorbate peroxidase, all of which have cell compartment-specific isoforms. Apoplastic H2 O2 influences cell expansion, development and defence by its involvement in type III peroxidase-mediated polymer cross-linking, lignification and, possibly, cell expansion via H2 O2 -derived hydroxyl radicals. Excess H2 O2 triggers chloroplast and peroxisome autophagy and programmed cell death. The role of H2 O2 in signalling, for example during acclimation to stress and pathogen defence, has received much attention, but the signal transduction mechanisms are poorly defined. H2 O2 oxidizes specific cysteine residues of target proteins to the sulfenic acid form and, similar to other organisms, this modification could initiate thiol-based redox relays and modify target enzymes, receptor kinases and transcription factors. Quantification of the sources and sinks of H2 O2 is being improved by the spatial and temporal resolution of genetically encoded H2 O2 sensors, such as HyPer and roGFP2-Orp1. These H2 O2 sensors, combined with the detection of specific proteins modified by H2 O2 , will allow a deeper understanding of its signalling roles.

Oxygen (O(2)) is a vital element. Shortage of O(2) results in deranged metabolism and important changes in vascular tone with opposite effects on the systemic and pulmonary circulation. During hypoxemia, oxidative stress exposes the organism to a sort of accelerated senescence as well as to several acute untoward effects. Thus, hypoxemia should be promptly recognized and treated, hopefully by measures tailored to the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying hypoxemia. However, O(2) therapy remains the most common therapy of hypoxemia, but it must be carefully tailored to relieve hypoxemia without provoking hyperoxia or hypercarbia. Then, the individual response to O(2) as well as changing needs of O(2) during sleep or exercise must be evaluated to provide the best O(2) therapy. Hyperoxia, the effect of overcorrection of hypoxia, can dramatically impact the health status and threaten the survival of the newborn and, through different mechanisms and effects, the adult. A thorough knowledge of the pathophysiological bases of hypoxemia and O(2) storage and delivery devices is then mandatory to administer O(2) therapy guaranteeing for optimal correction of hypoxemia and minimizing the risk of hyperoxia. Consistent with this aim also is a careful scrutiny of instruments and procedures for monitoring the individual response to O(2) over time. Thus, at variance from classical pharmacological therapy, performing O(2) therapy requires a vast array of clinical and technical competences. The optimal integration of these competences is needed to optimize O(2) therapy on individual bases.